Nowadays employment is the greatest issue in the lives of people. While, people have been in search cheap nfl jerseys
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read at expected levels. It handles this problem by centering on bettering the quality of teaching, which is provided in all classrooms by the Denver schools.
s on the posts that can offer them huge salaries. The people living in these states are very much prompted for making their careers. This is the only reason, why you amaze to see that every person is searching jobs in Colorado.The need for high profile and good jobs is increasing in Colorado. Denver which is the capital city of Colorado is the only one city of this state, which has really changed and changed the lifestyle of people of these state. Denver jobs have given the great chances, not only to the people of this city, but as well to those, who have arrive from other cities of this state and as well from other states of US. There are several job opportunities in Denver, who have a degree in his hands with great skills, and then he can definitely fix himself in a good post in an international or multinational company. the employer. Nowadays, with the help of internet, the whole procedure can be completed and conducted and within few hours. Starting from submit your resume until the reception of your employer; it would simply take few hours .The results will be immediately provided. If you have your degree then you can get construction management jobs in Denver.
Now, to search jobs in Denver or any of the Colorado has become very simple and easy. Thanks to the internet technology that has modified your lives like never before. It has really kept down your footwork to the biggest extent. Jobs in Denver can be looked, though seated inside your homes.Internet has inter milan shirt
reduced the duration of time, which used to cross you before because of looking for so long, just to find out the response of
Saturday, 9 October 2010
Wednesday, 6 October 2010
How to Get a Hack License in New York City
l as the most prestigious.
There are approximately 44,000 drivers carrying a Hack License in New York City today.
HOW TO GET A HACK LICENSEcheap nfl jerseys
IHow To Get A Hack License In New York City
A New York City Taxi Drivers License is called a “Hack License”. The “Hack” license allows the holder / driver to operate a Yellow Medallion Taxicab in New York City. Only Yellow Taxicabs are allowed to pick up passengers hailing from the street. The Hack license, issued through The New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission, is the only license for operating a Yellow Taxicab.
There are other licenses issued by the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission for car service and limousines but they can not be used to operate the Yellow Taxicab. The Hack license however can be used to operate a limousine or car service vehicle. This fact makes the Hack License the most valuable of NYC T&LC issued operator licenses, as welN NYC
The Process and Requirements
• All applicants for a New York City Taxi Hack License must be no less than nineteen (19) Years of age
• Applicants are required to have, a Class A, B, C, or E N.Y. State Drivers License, or a license from New Jersey, Connecticut or Pennsylvania of a similar class.
• Most licenses in New York State are Class D.
• To change a license from a class D to a class E one must go to the Department of Motor Vehicles and pay an upgrade fee.
• There will be no test.
• The fee will be approximately fifty dollars.
An applicant may not have outstanding parking, or traffic summonses. Money owed to the New York City for parking or traffic violations must be paid, or a documented settlement agreement with the appropriate agency must be presented to the NYC T&LC licensing division at the time of application.
Applicants for a New York City Taxi Hack License must be citizens, or legal residents of the United States.
All applicants for a “Hack License” are required to attend a New York State certified, six-hour Defensive Driving Course.
• This defensive driving class must be attended within six months of the date of application to thebob Sanders Blue Jerseys
New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission for the Hack License.
• The number one provider of defensive driving courses for New York City Taxi Drivers is the Master Cabbie Taxi Academy. Mastercabbie. Classes are available six days per week. The price ( On 10/29/07) is $45. or $39. with online registration.
Applicants are required to complete Form B of the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission Taxi Drivers Application. This must be completed by a certified Medical Doctor.
• The application must be submitted in person to the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission at either 32-02 Queens Blvd. Long Island City N.Y. 11101 Monday through Friday 9AM to 4PM.
• A secondary location for submission is in Staten Island. Open Monday, Tuesday and Thursdays at 1893 Richmond Terrace Staten Island NY 10302.
• No walk-ins are permitted at the Staten Island Location.
• For an appointment call: 212-227-6324.
• At the time of application the applicant will be required to pay a sixty dollar application fee by money order made payable to the NYC TLC.
• At the time of application the applicant is also required to pay a seventy-five dollar fingerprinting fee by money order made payable to N.Y.S.D.C.J.S.
Applicants for a Hack License are required to be tested for illegal drugs. A Hack License will not be issued to any person not completing the test.
• The only pre-licensing approved drug testing center is at 31-00 47th Ave. Long Island City NY 11101.
• It is open Monday through Friday from 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM.
• Payment must be by money order made payable to Lab Corp. Inc.
• Failing the drug test will result in a licensing standards hearing conducted by the NYC T&LC. The application for the Hack License may be denied a license may not be issued in this case.
NYC requires mandatory pre-license training for all New York City taxi drivers. The training is conducted by approved training institutions. The minimum training requirement is a twenty-four hour program. A three day course, consisting of three eight hour components. Geography/Map Reading, Rules and Regulations / Defensive Driving and Customer Service are some of the topics of study.
There is a separate course consisting of Eighty Hours of classroom study requiring nine eight hour days of classroom training, and one day of testing. The Eighty-hour Program is the program on which the New York City Taxi driver test is based.
Other programs, for how to get a hack license which have no time constraints are also available. The most prominent program is conducted by Master Cabbie Taxi Academy. The programs are unlimited in length, so long as the student maintains a regular schedule at the school.
Other unlimited programs include all for the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission application process. Persons utilizing credit cards make use of this option to have Master Cabbie Taxi Academy make the fee’s available when the student is ready for each phase of the Hack licensing process. This removes the need to purchase money orders for which only cash can be used.
The taxi driver test for how to get a hack license in New York City consists of two parts. It is administered by the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission each week at the Master Cabbie Taxi Academy.
• The Hack License applicant must successfully complete an English Proficiency as part of the exam. It is a low level ESL exam for basic, English proficiency, consisting of four parts. There are thirty questions, fifteen of which are fill-ins, and fifteen of which are multiple choice. An applicant must score bob Sanders White Jersey
twenty-one correctly to pass the exam. Applicants failing the exam are allowed to sit for a second exam on another date. Applicants failing the exam for a second time must submit a new application to the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission if they wish to continue the process of obtaining a New York City Hack License.
• The final step in the proc geography, landmarks, highways, air, bus and train terminals, etc. Applicants must answer thirty-five questions correctly, scoring seventy percent, or better, to pass the exam. Applicants failing the exam are allowed to sit for a second exam on another date. Applicants failing the exam for a second time must submit a new application to the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission if they wish to continue the process.
Taxi drivers in New York City earn as much as one thousand dollars per week and more.
If you wish to apply for a New York City Hack License you should contact Master Cabbie Taxi Academy. At: 718-472-1699 or 1-800-955-TAXI.
© Terry Gelber October 2007
ess of How To Get A Hack License in NYC is, The New York City Taxi Operators exam. The Taxi Operators exam consists of two parts. One part is open book and the other is closed book. Part One consists of ten questions. The applicant is allowed to use a Five (5) Borough New York City Atlas and a Street address locator during this portion of the exam. For this portion of the exam forty-five minutes is allowed.
• Part Two of the New York City Taxi Operators exam allows the applicant seventy-five minutes and consists of forty questions. Approximately twelve questions will pertain to rules and regulationsbob Sanders White Jersey
and defensive driving questions. The remaining twenty-eight questions will pertain to Terry Gelber has a NYC Hack License.
There are approximately 44,000 drivers carrying a Hack License in New York City today.
HOW TO GET A HACK LICENSEcheap nfl jerseys
IHow To Get A Hack License In New York City
A New York City Taxi Drivers License is called a “Hack License”. The “Hack” license allows the holder / driver to operate a Yellow Medallion Taxicab in New York City. Only Yellow Taxicabs are allowed to pick up passengers hailing from the street. The Hack license, issued through The New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission, is the only license for operating a Yellow Taxicab.
There are other licenses issued by the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission for car service and limousines but they can not be used to operate the Yellow Taxicab. The Hack license however can be used to operate a limousine or car service vehicle. This fact makes the Hack License the most valuable of NYC T&LC issued operator licenses, as welN NYC
The Process and Requirements
• All applicants for a New York City Taxi Hack License must be no less than nineteen (19) Years of age
• Applicants are required to have, a Class A, B, C, or E N.Y. State Drivers License, or a license from New Jersey, Connecticut or Pennsylvania of a similar class.
• Most licenses in New York State are Class D.
• To change a license from a class D to a class E one must go to the Department of Motor Vehicles and pay an upgrade fee.
• There will be no test.
• The fee will be approximately fifty dollars.
An applicant may not have outstanding parking, or traffic summonses. Money owed to the New York City for parking or traffic violations must be paid, or a documented settlement agreement with the appropriate agency must be presented to the NYC T&LC licensing division at the time of application.
Applicants for a New York City Taxi Hack License must be citizens, or legal residents of the United States.
All applicants for a “Hack License” are required to attend a New York State certified, six-hour Defensive Driving Course.
• This defensive driving class must be attended within six months of the date of application to thebob Sanders Blue Jerseys
New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission for the Hack License.
• The number one provider of defensive driving courses for New York City Taxi Drivers is the Master Cabbie Taxi Academy. Mastercabbie. Classes are available six days per week. The price ( On 10/29/07) is $45. or $39. with online registration.
Applicants are required to complete Form B of the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission Taxi Drivers Application. This must be completed by a certified Medical Doctor.
• The application must be submitted in person to the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission at either 32-02 Queens Blvd. Long Island City N.Y. 11101 Monday through Friday 9AM to 4PM.
• A secondary location for submission is in Staten Island. Open Monday, Tuesday and Thursdays at 1893 Richmond Terrace Staten Island NY 10302.
• No walk-ins are permitted at the Staten Island Location.
• For an appointment call: 212-227-6324.
• At the time of application the applicant will be required to pay a sixty dollar application fee by money order made payable to the NYC TLC.
• At the time of application the applicant is also required to pay a seventy-five dollar fingerprinting fee by money order made payable to N.Y.S.D.C.J.S.
Applicants for a Hack License are required to be tested for illegal drugs. A Hack License will not be issued to any person not completing the test.
• The only pre-licensing approved drug testing center is at 31-00 47th Ave. Long Island City NY 11101.
• It is open Monday through Friday from 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM.
• Payment must be by money order made payable to Lab Corp. Inc.
• Failing the drug test will result in a licensing standards hearing conducted by the NYC T&LC. The application for the Hack License may be denied a license may not be issued in this case.
NYC requires mandatory pre-license training for all New York City taxi drivers. The training is conducted by approved training institutions. The minimum training requirement is a twenty-four hour program. A three day course, consisting of three eight hour components. Geography/Map Reading, Rules and Regulations / Defensive Driving and Customer Service are some of the topics of study.
There is a separate course consisting of Eighty Hours of classroom study requiring nine eight hour days of classroom training, and one day of testing. The Eighty-hour Program is the program on which the New York City Taxi driver test is based.
Other programs, for how to get a hack license which have no time constraints are also available. The most prominent program is conducted by Master Cabbie Taxi Academy. The programs are unlimited in length, so long as the student maintains a regular schedule at the school.
Other unlimited programs include all for the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission application process. Persons utilizing credit cards make use of this option to have Master Cabbie Taxi Academy make the fee’s available when the student is ready for each phase of the Hack licensing process. This removes the need to purchase money orders for which only cash can be used.
The taxi driver test for how to get a hack license in New York City consists of two parts. It is administered by the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission each week at the Master Cabbie Taxi Academy.
• The Hack License applicant must successfully complete an English Proficiency as part of the exam. It is a low level ESL exam for basic, English proficiency, consisting of four parts. There are thirty questions, fifteen of which are fill-ins, and fifteen of which are multiple choice. An applicant must score bob Sanders White Jersey
twenty-one correctly to pass the exam. Applicants failing the exam are allowed to sit for a second exam on another date. Applicants failing the exam for a second time must submit a new application to the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission if they wish to continue the process of obtaining a New York City Hack License.
• The final step in the proc geography, landmarks, highways, air, bus and train terminals, etc. Applicants must answer thirty-five questions correctly, scoring seventy percent, or better, to pass the exam. Applicants failing the exam are allowed to sit for a second exam on another date. Applicants failing the exam for a second time must submit a new application to the New York City Taxi & Limousine Commission if they wish to continue the process.
Taxi drivers in New York City earn as much as one thousand dollars per week and more.
If you wish to apply for a New York City Hack License you should contact Master Cabbie Taxi Academy. At: 718-472-1699 or 1-800-955-TAXI.
© Terry Gelber October 2007
ess of How To Get A Hack License in NYC is, The New York City Taxi Operators exam. The Taxi Operators exam consists of two parts. One part is open book and the other is closed book. Part One consists of ten questions. The applicant is allowed to use a Five (5) Borough New York City Atlas and a Street address locator during this portion of the exam. For this portion of the exam forty-five minutes is allowed.
• Part Two of the New York City Taxi Operators exam allows the applicant seventy-five minutes and consists of forty questions. Approximately twelve questions will pertain to rules and regulationsbob Sanders White Jersey
and defensive driving questions. The remaining twenty-eight questions will pertain to Terry Gelber has a NYC Hack License.
Tuesday, 5 October 2010
Chicago Marriage Counseling Really Works For Married Couples With Major Difficulties
ems. Those problems can be lack of love, poor communication, and lack of trust or anger. Adultery is a frequent cause or problems, as well as illness. Marriages in crisis must prevent future problems and ask for therapy sessions at Chicago cheap nfl jerseys marriage counseling.
Couples living in Chicago and having troubles in their marriages can ask for marital counseling to some well known therapists. If a couple has a major problem, Chicago marriage counseling is really necessary. This is the most recommended route to rebuild a marriage, the way to find the problems and issues in a marriage in trouble.
You can believe that a therapist can go into your head and see and understand all your experiences; nobody but you knows what issues causes problems in your marriage. Chicago Marriage counseling is really necessary if partners don't know what is causing their probl
Marriage counseling prevents future problems
Therapist form Chicago marriage counseling will work hard with you to save your marriage, to find your problems root. Many problems exists, somejuventus jersey
new ones may appear in the future. Therapy in Chicago marriage counseling can take months or weeks, depending on the partners willing to make their marriage back on track. A good, committed counselor can help you to transform your marriage into a rewarding one. Chicago marriage counseling can show you the root of your problems and teach you new strategies to make great changes, even if you have emotional troubles now.
If the expectations from your marriage are not fulfilled, if you don't have the marriage of your dreams, Chicago marriage counseling can change this situation, offer posi and also earn more about the most important tools to use for your entire life. Committed therapists can see the main patterns in your relationship and teach you how to change things to have a great relationship. You can learn to work through the obstacles and have the happiness you truly deserve in your life.
Chicago marriage counseling can show you the key strategies to maintain a strong relationship, to face the present and future challenges. Therapists will fulfill their mission teaching you the appropriate tools to build the best relationship you can have.
tive options. You will learn how to use new tools to improve your communication skills, to maintain a satisfying relationship and learn the essentials about it in short time.
Chicago marriage counseling offers powerful strategies to expand harmony and happiness in your family; you can find the solution for your issues
Couples living in Chicago and having troubles in their marriages can ask for marital counseling to some well known therapists. If a couple has a major problem, Chicago marriage counseling is really necessary. This is the most recommended route to rebuild a marriage, the way to find the problems and issues in a marriage in trouble.
You can believe that a therapist can go into your head and see and understand all your experiences; nobody but you knows what issues causes problems in your marriage. Chicago Marriage counseling is really necessary if partners don't know what is causing their probl
Marriage counseling prevents future problems
Therapist form Chicago marriage counseling will work hard with you to save your marriage, to find your problems root. Many problems exists, somejuventus jersey
new ones may appear in the future. Therapy in Chicago marriage counseling can take months or weeks, depending on the partners willing to make their marriage back on track. A good, committed counselor can help you to transform your marriage into a rewarding one. Chicago marriage counseling can show you the root of your problems and teach you new strategies to make great changes, even if you have emotional troubles now.
If the expectations from your marriage are not fulfilled, if you don't have the marriage of your dreams, Chicago marriage counseling can change this situation, offer posi and also earn more about the most important tools to use for your entire life. Committed therapists can see the main patterns in your relationship and teach you how to change things to have a great relationship. You can learn to work through the obstacles and have the happiness you truly deserve in your life.
Chicago marriage counseling can show you the key strategies to maintain a strong relationship, to face the present and future challenges. Therapists will fulfill their mission teaching you the appropriate tools to build the best relationship you can have.
tive options. You will learn how to use new tools to improve your communication skills, to maintain a satisfying relationship and learn the essentials about it in short time.
Chicago marriage counseling offers powerful strategies to expand harmony and happiness in your family; you can find the solution for your issues
Friday, 1 October 2010
GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND ITS IMPLICATIONS
The Greenhouse Effect maybe the most important natural phenomena and may lead to major changes in our lifestyles within our lifetime. Today, whenever there is a natural disaster, the Greenhouse Effect seems to be on the agenda. It wasn’t so long ago that scientists were dismissive of the Greenhouse Effect and there are some still that do not believe it exists, just like there are still people out there that think the world is still flat and the Holocaust never existed. So what is the Greenhouse Effect? replica louis vuitton handbags
What is the Greenhouse Effect?
The Greenhouse Effect is the culmination of various Greenhouse gases that have been trapped in the Earth’s stratosphere that is leading to the changing of the word’s climate.
• Under the influence of the sun’s rays, the earth’s temperature varies from 0 to about 50oC with an average through night and day, winter and summer, of about 15o C
• The warming is done by rays from the sun, including the very shortest, ultraviolet (UV) rays and the longest infra-red (IR) rays which give you that warm feeling when you walk out into the sunshine, much like an electric radiator warms you when you turn it on and get close to it.
• Some of the incoming rays are reflected back by the clouds in the sky and others by the sea and land, particularly deserts and snowfields.
• Not all those reflected rays go back into space, instead, the atmosphere re-radiates many of the IR rays towards the earth making it warmer still. It is this ability of the atmosphere to re-radiate warm rays which creates the Greenhouse Effect.
• Water vapour, carbon dioxide and certain other trace gases, absorb some of this radiation and prevent it being sent back into space. This “blanket effect” keeps the earth warm. History of the GreenhouseDonovan McNabb Green jersey
Effect It is not a new phenomena or concept. The term “Greenhouse gas” was first used in the Nineteen Century, by Irish born scientist John Tyndall in a paper he wrote in London’s Philosophical Magazine in 1863. It wasn’t until the 1960’s that Professor Bert Bolin of Stockholm University worked on the phenomenon. When he discussed it with fellow scientists they said “This is science fiction. We don’t believe it”. However by the mid 1970’s things were starting to change rapidly as scientists were starting to accept he was right.
How do we know the Greenhouse Effect exists? What is the evidence?
1. 1. Scientists have analysed climates on planets like Venus and our moon. Venus which is covered by a very dense atmosphere of carbon dioxide. Its surface temperature is around 500 deg C. Whilst the moon which has no atmosphere has an average temperature of approximately -18 deg C. Our atmosphere keeps the surface of our earth, with an average of 15 deg C, some 33 deg C warmer and thus habitable.
2. Evidence of ice cores Over the past 160,000 years carbon dioxide and methane levels trapped in ice cores have varied with global temperature. Scientists have been able to drill out ice cores from the Arctic and Antarctic and measure the levels of carbon dioxide and methane.
3. Increase in surface temperature of approximately 0.5 deg C over 100 years as carbon dioxide levels increase Studies conducted by scientists have concluded that the earth’s temperature remained fairly constant until the start of the Industrial Revolution. Indeed it did not change much until the start of the twentieth century.
• From 1880 to 1940 there was a warming of just a quarter of a degree. Most of it was lost between 1940 and 1970.
• From 1950 to 1980 the average surface temperature was 15 deg C.
• Between 1970 and 1980 the temperature average went up by three-tenths of a degree C.
• 1987 and 1988 were the warmest years on record and since then temperatures have been increasing. In 2009, Victoria Australia, experienced the hottest two days on record- 46 deg C, and one of the days (February 6th) leading to Australia's worst natural disaster in which over 170 people died as a result of bushfires.
4. Sea levels are rising and small glaciers are melting.
• Scientists using satellite and imaging technology have been able to monitor the melting of polar ice caps and glaciers.
What are the results of the Greenhouse Effect?
By using very sophisticated computer modeling, scientists have been able to predict what the world’s climate will be like when carbon dioxide levels have doubled.
1. Increase in world’s temperature It is thought that there will be an increase in the average global temperature by between 1.5 and 4.5 deg C . • By year 2030 an increase of 2 deg C, by 2100 an increase of 6 deg C. The warming will be greater at higher latitudes and in winter. This will lead to the melting of polar ice caps and glaciers which is already evident, in places like Greenland, the Arctic and Antarctic.
2. Changes in World’s climate The Greenhouse Effect will lead to world-wide changes in weather and climate. Some places may get more rain and storms while other places may get less. Not all changes will be bad. However, almost everywhere in the world will have changes in weather, which will have a big impact on our lives
3. Rising Sea Level It is estimated that by the year 2030, the average sea level will increase by approximately 20 centimetres. This will be due mainly to the melting of the polar ice cap, but also warming of the atmosphere will heat the upper layers of the oceans, which will expand when heated. For low lying countries in the Pacific like Tuvalu and Kiribati, and in the Indian Ocean like Maldives and other countries like Holland may altogether disappear.
4. Other impacts Other impacts could be the dieing out of some species of animals and plants, such as coastal marine environments and coral reefs. Some plants would not be able to survive temperature increases. It takes thousands of years for forests to move north or south to cooler climates. According to Joel B. Smith, co-author of an EPA report states that “such a warming over a century would require forests to move five times faster than the fastest rate recorded by paleontologists since the end of the last ice age”.
What are the primary Greenhouse gases?
They are a number of organic compounds which have more than two bonds (i.e 3 atoms). The seven major Greenhouse gases are:
1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
2. Ozone (O3)
3. Methane (CH4)
4. CFC’s (Freons F11 & F12)
5. Water vapour (H2O)
6. Nitrous Oxides (NOx)
7. Ethane (CH3CH3)
Where do they come from?
• Most of the Greenhouse gases have resulted from the burning of fossil fuels. Everything from power stations, motor vehicles, refrigerators, and factory emissions
• However, CO2 also results from deforestation which releases carbon locked in the soil when trees are felled.
• CH4 is released from agriculture such as sheep, cattle and manures and places such as tips, sewage treatment plants and mines.
Fossil Fuel contributions
Due to the nature of carbon to hydrogen ratio, different fossil fuels emit different levels of CO2.
Fossil Fuel Carbon to Hydrogen Ratio
Coal Approx. 1:1
Oil Approx. 1:2
Natural Gas Approx. 1:4
• Hence combustion of coal produces twice the CO2 of natural gas
CO2 Levels in the atmosphere (parts per million)
Pre Industrial Revolution 270 ppm
1988 345 ppm
Today >355 ppm
• By measuring bubbles of gases trapped in polar ice, scientists have shown that the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere prior to the Industrial Revolution was about 270 parts per million (ppm).
• A special monitoring station established atop from the mountain Mauna Loa in the Hawaiian Islands showed that by 1957 CO2 levels in the atmosphere to 315 ppm, an increase of 17%.
• By 1988, it had passed 345 ppm. A rise in 31 years of another 11%. An increased total of about 30% since the start of the Industrial Revolution.
• Expert’s further forecast that CO2 will reach a level of 500-700 ppm by the year 2050, a doubling inside 200 years.
Percentage Contribution of Greenhouse gases to the Greenhouse Effect
CO2 55%
CFC (F-11/F-12)* 17%
CH4 15%
NO 26%
Other 7%
* Please note that CFCs have been phased out since the mid-nineties
To stablise atmospheric concentration of various gases at present day levels, the following reductions would be required instantly:
CO2 60%
CH4 15-20%
NO2 70-80%
CFC (F-11)* 70-75%
CFC (F-12)* 75-85%
Remaining Scientific Uncertainty
No argument that increasing concentrations of heat trapping gases will lead to an increase in average temperatures world-wide.
However there is an argument about the extent in some cases of various positive and negative effects.
1. Uncertainty in effects of clouds Cumulus- negative cooling effect reflect incoming sunlight High Altitude clouds- positive effect by trapping infra-red radiation from earth
• This uncertainty explains variation in temperatures from 1.5 deg C to 4.5 deg C.
2. Combustion of fossil fuels e.g. coal to sulphur dioxide (SO2) has cooling effect.
3. Variations in sun’s output are responsible for temperature increases.
4. Ocean levels will naturally increase due to thermal expansion of surface ocean water and melting of glaciers.
• An increase in temperature will lead to increased precipitation, which will increase ice thickness at poles, thus reducing sea level.
5. Natural regional climatic changes, such as deforestation and bushfires, as opposed to global changes.
Policies for Greenhouse Emission Reduction Problems
1. Different countries emit vastly different CO2 levels per capita
2. Countries have very different per capita incomes
3. Very difficult to work out the warming potential for each Greenhouse Gas in terms of CO2 equivalent.
4. Emissions of gases from various countries are not known with certainty
Policies
1. Each country can reduce by the same percentage
• Existing emission levels are uneven per capita are taken as standard
• Poor countries want to increase fossil fuel usage
2. Each country gets the same emission quotas on a per capita basis.These countries sell quotas to rich countries.
3. Rich countries could reduce emissions by 20% with no reductions required by poor countries.
• Not all rich countries have high emissions of CO2, and not all poor countries are low emitters because of deforestation.
4. Assume Australia which is high income and high Greenhouse Gas emitter per capita is required to reduce emissions by 20%.
• How should it be reduced? By: a) each state? b) each industry section?
Some methods of reducing CO2 emissions that have negative impact on our lives;
• Better managing of natural resource;
• Reducing waste in manufacturing;
• Find alternative end uses for waste (recycle and reuse);
• Buying less junks and goods that we don’t need (In Australia, estimated to be worth AUD$10 billion per annum);
• Buying quality goods that don’t need replacing as often;
• Recycling more (e.g. it takes about 8 times more energy to convert bauxite to aluminium than it does to recycle it)
• Reduced use of motor vehicles;
• Increased use of public transport;
• More efficient lighting, heating and cooling;
• Better insulation;
• Less reliance on electricity and electrical goods and machines;
• More efficient electrical appliances;
• More efficient cars;
• Alternative technologies from natural sources such as wind, thermal and tidal;
• Converting landfills and sewage plants into methane plants;
• Bio-fuels such as bio-diesel, methanol and ethanol production from organic waste sources
• Reduce large scale deforestation and land clearing;
• Increase tree planting; soccer jerseys
• More efficient agriculture including No till and Conservation agriculture methods;
• Organic farming.
What is the Greenhouse Effect?
The Greenhouse Effect is the culmination of various Greenhouse gases that have been trapped in the Earth’s stratosphere that is leading to the changing of the word’s climate.
• Under the influence of the sun’s rays, the earth’s temperature varies from 0 to about 50oC with an average through night and day, winter and summer, of about 15o C
• The warming is done by rays from the sun, including the very shortest, ultraviolet (UV) rays and the longest infra-red (IR) rays which give you that warm feeling when you walk out into the sunshine, much like an electric radiator warms you when you turn it on and get close to it.
• Some of the incoming rays are reflected back by the clouds in the sky and others by the sea and land, particularly deserts and snowfields.
• Not all those reflected rays go back into space, instead, the atmosphere re-radiates many of the IR rays towards the earth making it warmer still. It is this ability of the atmosphere to re-radiate warm rays which creates the Greenhouse Effect.
• Water vapour, carbon dioxide and certain other trace gases, absorb some of this radiation and prevent it being sent back into space. This “blanket effect” keeps the earth warm. History of the GreenhouseDonovan McNabb Green jersey
Effect It is not a new phenomena or concept. The term “Greenhouse gas” was first used in the Nineteen Century, by Irish born scientist John Tyndall in a paper he wrote in London’s Philosophical Magazine in 1863. It wasn’t until the 1960’s that Professor Bert Bolin of Stockholm University worked on the phenomenon. When he discussed it with fellow scientists they said “This is science fiction. We don’t believe it”. However by the mid 1970’s things were starting to change rapidly as scientists were starting to accept he was right.
How do we know the Greenhouse Effect exists? What is the evidence?
1. 1. Scientists have analysed climates on planets like Venus and our moon. Venus which is covered by a very dense atmosphere of carbon dioxide. Its surface temperature is around 500 deg C. Whilst the moon which has no atmosphere has an average temperature of approximately -18 deg C. Our atmosphere keeps the surface of our earth, with an average of 15 deg C, some 33 deg C warmer and thus habitable.
2. Evidence of ice cores Over the past 160,000 years carbon dioxide and methane levels trapped in ice cores have varied with global temperature. Scientists have been able to drill out ice cores from the Arctic and Antarctic and measure the levels of carbon dioxide and methane.
3. Increase in surface temperature of approximately 0.5 deg C over 100 years as carbon dioxide levels increase Studies conducted by scientists have concluded that the earth’s temperature remained fairly constant until the start of the Industrial Revolution. Indeed it did not change much until the start of the twentieth century.
• From 1880 to 1940 there was a warming of just a quarter of a degree. Most of it was lost between 1940 and 1970.
• From 1950 to 1980 the average surface temperature was 15 deg C.
• Between 1970 and 1980 the temperature average went up by three-tenths of a degree C.
• 1987 and 1988 were the warmest years on record and since then temperatures have been increasing. In 2009, Victoria Australia, experienced the hottest two days on record- 46 deg C, and one of the days (February 6th) leading to Australia's worst natural disaster in which over 170 people died as a result of bushfires.
4. Sea levels are rising and small glaciers are melting.
• Scientists using satellite and imaging technology have been able to monitor the melting of polar ice caps and glaciers.
What are the results of the Greenhouse Effect?
By using very sophisticated computer modeling, scientists have been able to predict what the world’s climate will be like when carbon dioxide levels have doubled.
1. Increase in world’s temperature It is thought that there will be an increase in the average global temperature by between 1.5 and 4.5 deg C . • By year 2030 an increase of 2 deg C, by 2100 an increase of 6 deg C. The warming will be greater at higher latitudes and in winter. This will lead to the melting of polar ice caps and glaciers which is already evident, in places like Greenland, the Arctic and Antarctic.
2. Changes in World’s climate The Greenhouse Effect will lead to world-wide changes in weather and climate. Some places may get more rain and storms while other places may get less. Not all changes will be bad. However, almost everywhere in the world will have changes in weather, which will have a big impact on our lives
3. Rising Sea Level It is estimated that by the year 2030, the average sea level will increase by approximately 20 centimetres. This will be due mainly to the melting of the polar ice cap, but also warming of the atmosphere will heat the upper layers of the oceans, which will expand when heated. For low lying countries in the Pacific like Tuvalu and Kiribati, and in the Indian Ocean like Maldives and other countries like Holland may altogether disappear.
4. Other impacts Other impacts could be the dieing out of some species of animals and plants, such as coastal marine environments and coral reefs. Some plants would not be able to survive temperature increases. It takes thousands of years for forests to move north or south to cooler climates. According to Joel B. Smith, co-author of an EPA report states that “such a warming over a century would require forests to move five times faster than the fastest rate recorded by paleontologists since the end of the last ice age”.
What are the primary Greenhouse gases?
They are a number of organic compounds which have more than two bonds (i.e 3 atoms). The seven major Greenhouse gases are:
1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
2. Ozone (O3)
3. Methane (CH4)
4. CFC’s (Freons F11 & F12)
5. Water vapour (H2O)
6. Nitrous Oxides (NOx)
7. Ethane (CH3CH3)
Where do they come from?
• Most of the Greenhouse gases have resulted from the burning of fossil fuels. Everything from power stations, motor vehicles, refrigerators, and factory emissions
• However, CO2 also results from deforestation which releases carbon locked in the soil when trees are felled.
• CH4 is released from agriculture such as sheep, cattle and manures and places such as tips, sewage treatment plants and mines.
Fossil Fuel contributions
Due to the nature of carbon to hydrogen ratio, different fossil fuels emit different levels of CO2.
Fossil Fuel Carbon to Hydrogen Ratio
Coal Approx. 1:1
Oil Approx. 1:2
Natural Gas Approx. 1:4
• Hence combustion of coal produces twice the CO2 of natural gas
CO2 Levels in the atmosphere (parts per million)
Pre Industrial Revolution 270 ppm
1988 345 ppm
Today >355 ppm
• By measuring bubbles of gases trapped in polar ice, scientists have shown that the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere prior to the Industrial Revolution was about 270 parts per million (ppm).
• A special monitoring station established atop from the mountain Mauna Loa in the Hawaiian Islands showed that by 1957 CO2 levels in the atmosphere to 315 ppm, an increase of 17%.
• By 1988, it had passed 345 ppm. A rise in 31 years of another 11%. An increased total of about 30% since the start of the Industrial Revolution.
• Expert’s further forecast that CO2 will reach a level of 500-700 ppm by the year 2050, a doubling inside 200 years.
Percentage Contribution of Greenhouse gases to the Greenhouse Effect
CO2 55%
CFC (F-11/F-12)* 17%
CH4 15%
NO 26%
Other 7%
* Please note that CFCs have been phased out since the mid-nineties
To stablise atmospheric concentration of various gases at present day levels, the following reductions would be required instantly:
CO2 60%
CH4 15-20%
NO2 70-80%
CFC (F-11)* 70-75%
CFC (F-12)* 75-85%
Remaining Scientific Uncertainty
No argument that increasing concentrations of heat trapping gases will lead to an increase in average temperatures world-wide.
However there is an argument about the extent in some cases of various positive and negative effects.
1. Uncertainty in effects of clouds Cumulus- negative cooling effect reflect incoming sunlight High Altitude clouds- positive effect by trapping infra-red radiation from earth
• This uncertainty explains variation in temperatures from 1.5 deg C to 4.5 deg C.
2. Combustion of fossil fuels e.g. coal to sulphur dioxide (SO2) has cooling effect.
3. Variations in sun’s output are responsible for temperature increases.
4. Ocean levels will naturally increase due to thermal expansion of surface ocean water and melting of glaciers.
• An increase in temperature will lead to increased precipitation, which will increase ice thickness at poles, thus reducing sea level.
5. Natural regional climatic changes, such as deforestation and bushfires, as opposed to global changes.
Policies for Greenhouse Emission Reduction Problems
1. Different countries emit vastly different CO2 levels per capita
2. Countries have very different per capita incomes
3. Very difficult to work out the warming potential for each Greenhouse Gas in terms of CO2 equivalent.
4. Emissions of gases from various countries are not known with certainty
Policies
1. Each country can reduce by the same percentage
• Existing emission levels are uneven per capita are taken as standard
• Poor countries want to increase fossil fuel usage
2. Each country gets the same emission quotas on a per capita basis.These countries sell quotas to rich countries.
3. Rich countries could reduce emissions by 20% with no reductions required by poor countries.
• Not all rich countries have high emissions of CO2, and not all poor countries are low emitters because of deforestation.
4. Assume Australia which is high income and high Greenhouse Gas emitter per capita is required to reduce emissions by 20%.
• How should it be reduced? By: a) each state? b) each industry section?
Some methods of reducing CO2 emissions that have negative impact on our lives;
• Better managing of natural resource;
• Reducing waste in manufacturing;
• Find alternative end uses for waste (recycle and reuse);
• Buying less junks and goods that we don’t need (In Australia, estimated to be worth AUD$10 billion per annum);
• Buying quality goods that don’t need replacing as often;
• Recycling more (e.g. it takes about 8 times more energy to convert bauxite to aluminium than it does to recycle it)
• Reduced use of motor vehicles;
• Increased use of public transport;
• More efficient lighting, heating and cooling;
• Better insulation;
• Less reliance on electricity and electrical goods and machines;
• More efficient electrical appliances;
• More efficient cars;
• Alternative technologies from natural sources such as wind, thermal and tidal;
• Converting landfills and sewage plants into methane plants;
• Bio-fuels such as bio-diesel, methanol and ethanol production from organic waste sources
• Reduce large scale deforestation and land clearing;
• Increase tree planting; soccer jerseys
• More efficient agriculture including No till and Conservation agriculture methods;
• Organic farming.
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